FLAMENCO: THE EARLY YEARS

by Paco Sevilla

Author's Introduction: This article originally appeared in Guitar and
Lute magazine (Vol. 25, Nov. 1982) and was written for readers who knew
nothing about flamenco. Hence gome of the explanations.

The history of flamenco has always been an imprecise subject. Until
recent times, flamenco artists have not been literate people, and thus
have not provided us with written records of their lives and music.
Although a broken record of the development of Spanish music does exist,
the more intimate aspects of the art of flamenco were not made public
until the second half of the nineteenth century. Composing a written
history of flamenco has, therefore, consisted of making guesses,
colleating and selecting from other people'9 guesses, and then placing
everything in some sort of appropriate sequence. However, research into
Spanish, Arab, Greek, and Roman literature has in recent years provided
new information, as has analysis of related music and in-depth study of
existing cantes (flamenco song) or fragments of extinct cantes.  In this
article, I bring together fairly recent research, select among different
theories, and attempt to present a condensed picture of how flamenco
might have arrived at its present stage of development. An understanding
of the evolution of flamenco is one way to begin to understand this
complex and beautiful art form; an understanding of all major elements
of flamenco is essential to an understanding of the flamenco guitar, a
relative newcomer to the music and, until recently, the least
indispensable of its components.

It can be said that there exists nothing in Spain today that is purely
Spanish; in.almost every aspect of its culture, Spain has been an
incredible melting pot, absorbing even todaywave after wave of foreign
invasion. Thus the history of flamenco will necessarily be a study of
invasions and their effects on the music of the Iberian Peninsula, for
flamenco was formed from the fusion of the folk music of southern Spain
with the music that the gypsies created from that same musical
environment. As we shall see, popular folk music influenced the
development of gypsy music but also remained separate from it; in
relatively modern times, the union of the two gave us today's flamenco.

As early as 35,000-15,000 3C, there was dance in Iberia; cave paintings
in northern Spain depict dancers. In 1100 BC, the Phoenicians founded
the city of Cadiz, which they called Gadir. Located on a peninsula on
Spain's Atlantic coast, Cldiz is the oldest continuously inhabited city
in Europe and was an important center of development for Spanish music
and flamenco. There the Phoenicians introduced dances similar to
circle dances still performed in Spain.

By 550 BC, Greeks controlled southern Spain. Greek artwork shows
dancers using arm and body positions similar to those used by Spanish
dancers today, employing castanet-like instruments, and hand clapping to
accompany the dance.  Many folk dances in Spain today can be traced to
the Greeks.  It is also likely that they introduced the phrygian mode
into Spain. (The phrygian mode, a basic element in flamenco, uses the
typical "Spanish-sounding" scale; an example is the playing of the C
major scale from E to E, rather than from C to C.)

Spain was part of the Roman Empire from 201 BC to 406 AD. Cadiz was then
called Gades and its inhabitants Gaditanos (as they still are today),
while the southern part of Spain became known as Betica. Roman writings
refer to the cantica gaditanae, the songs of Gades, thought by some to
be possible predecessors of the jarchas and zamras (zambras) of the
Arabs when they later occupied Spain. These songs were very popular in
Rome, as were the women of Gades, who danced to the rhythms of crotalos
(bronze castanets) and handclapping. The Romans introduced to Spain the
kithera, a form of zither, which was to develop into the guitarra
latina, a small guitar-like instrument with four sets of double strings.

When the Romans were threatened from the north by hordes of barbarians -
Vandals and others - the Visigoths, also from the north, allied with the
Romans to help repel the invasion. However, by 537 AD, the Visigoths
ended up in control of most of Iberia and, under a Gothic king,
Christianity became the religion of the land. Culturally, the Visigoths
contributed very little.

In 711, Arabs, Syrians, and Berbers - collectively known as Moors -
invaded Spain through Gibralter and, within seven years, controlled all
but the very north. During almost seven centuries of occupation, the
Arabic culture exercised a tremendous influence on Spain, especially in
the south, which they called Al-Andaluz (the land of the vandals) and
made it the cultural center of the Western world. The Moslems brought
poetry, song, and musical instruments - flutes, drums and a lute-shaped
instrument with three single strings that came to be called the guitarra
morisca; this latter instrument, which was plucked, may have eventually
inspired the conversion of the double-stringed guitarra latina to a
single-stringed instrument, which happened by the 13th century. The
Persian poet and musician, Ziryab, who made C6rdoba an important center
for music, is often credited with adding a fifth string to the guitarra
latina.

The Arabs contributed sensitivity and emotionality to the music of
Spain. Writings from this period tell of singers who affected their
listeners so profoundly that, under the influence of tarab - the Arabic
equivalent of flamenco's duende (a state of ecstasy brought on by the
singing) - they would break jars on their heads, rip their clothing, nd
roll %bout on the ground. Many songs that later bec-me important in
Spanish music and flamenco have Arabic names:  zambra, zorongo,
zarabanda, and fandango. Originally zamras were groups of musicians or
the gatherings at which they played; today, gypsies in Granada still
call their fiestas zambras. There remain no written examples of Arabic
mu8ic of this period, but certainly the music would resemble some of the
music that exists today in parts of North Africa or th Middle-east;
modern flamenco shares certain elements with this music.

In northern Spain, the unconquered Christians developed their own forms
of music. Wandering musicians in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
sang ballads that were called cantigas. In the centuries that followed,
they would become romances (b ds) and villancicos (religious songs that
are, today, sung as Christmas carols). The Christian forces never
stopped fighting the Moorish invaders and gradually began to push them
south. By the fifteenth century, the Moors had been conquered in all
areas except Granada. Then in 1492 Granada fell and Spain was under
Christian rule once more.

The fall of Granada was not the only important event of the fifteenth
century; in 1447, the earliest surviving record tells us, gypsies
appeared in Spain. In that year, gypsies reached Barcelona, coming from
the north, and continued to enter Spain for the next several hundred
years.  They had begun emigrating from northern India in the eighth or
ninth centuries. These dark people were expert metal workers and had a
tradition of music and dance. While it is true that these gypsies, or
gitanos, were very different from the people who had originally left
India, they had preserved some of their language (There are many
similarities between cal6, the language of the gitanos, and the sanskrit
of India.) and their tendencies in the dance, particularly the arm and
hand movements and the footwork common to kathak dance of northern
India. Modern flamenco most notably differs from Indian dance in
flamenco's not telling stories

movements used in the same schooled manner.

It is clear that the gypsies did not bring anything to Spain that
resembled flamenco, for flamenco is found only in Spain, primarily in
Andalucfa, (the southern region of Spain); nothing similar exists among
the gypsies in other parts of the world (except for southern France,
where the gypsies have developed their own music based on Spanish
flamenco). The gypsy found in Andalucfa a land that suited him; there,
he absorbed, preserved, and transformed the music of the region until it
finally emerged as a unique art form - the cante and baile (dance)
gitano. In Andalucfa, the gypsy also found people who were similar to
him: Jews and Moriscos (Moors who chose to stay in Spain after the re-
conquest). The bond, or at least proXimity, of these people was
increased when laws were passed that resulted in severe perseCution of
the gypsies. Between 1449 and 1783, at least eleven mjor sets of laws
were passed that attempted to prevent the gypsies from living their
traditional lifestyle; under threat of punishment that included death,
gypsies were ordered to settle down and to abandon their wandering ways,
their traditional dress, their occupations, and even their language. The
Moriscos were also in the process of being expelled from Spain, so the
two persecuted peoples found themelves with much in common. Jewish music
must have exerted some influence. There has been no definite connec-
tion made between modern flamenco and the music of the Jews, but there
are distinct similarities between some Hebrew chants and certain
flamenco songs.

The gypsy preserved elements of music, that might have been lost in
Christian Spain. Elements of Oriental music that survived to become part
of flamenco include the use of microtones, that is, tones smaller than a
semitone, slides from one note to another, a tendency toward repetition
of a single tone, which gives a hypnotic quality to the music, a
tendency for melodies to flow within a small tonal range, rather than
jump by large intervals, the use of microtonal and semitonal
ornamentation to give exnressiveness to the music, the use of a
descending cadence (in conjunction with the phrygian mode), the lack of
harmonization (the music tends to be melodic, not harmonic), the
complexrhythms and cross-rhythms, a preference for a nasal or even harsh
tone, both vocally snd instrumentally, and an emphasis on the emo-
tional quality of music. There was also the use of verbal encouragement
of performers; at some point, the Allah of the Arabs became the ole of
flamenco (usually pronounced "oh- LAY" at the bullfight, but "OH-lay" in
flamenco circles).  In the area of dance, we find the sinuous, sensuous
move- ments of arms, hands, and torso and reduced importance of foot
movements. Moslem tradition dictated that women should not reveal their
legs, so footwork was not part of their dance. Footwork did not become
an important part of the female Spanish dance until the twentieth
century.

In the Spain of the Visigoths and Arabs, music tended to be religious,
academic, and elitist - it was restricted to the courts of the nobility.
However, its restriction from the common people began to change. During
the two hundred and fifty years after the reconquest, the musical brew
in Andalucfa incubated and underwent transformation. The development of
the music "of the people" followed two different paths, with some
interchange between them paths that would continue separately until the
mid-1800's and, to a degree, into the present.

Spanish folk music continued its development with a strong Arabic
influence. Dances in the sixteenth century included the chacona, the
zarabanda, and the fandango; the fandango, changing name and form,
eventually becam differ- ent dances in the different regions of Spain,
including the jot- of the northern provinces and the many variations
found in the provinces of Andalucfa. This music would become the fiesta
music of the Andalucian people, something to be enjoyed outdoor on
holidays, danced by couples and groups and performed by orchestras of
stringed instruments accom- psnied by drums, castanets, and tambourines.
At the same time, the gypsies, suffering severe persecution, were
creating a more private kind of music, a music that was kept within the
family circle and often had an almost sacred quality; the verses of
their songs dealt with their suffer- ing - hunger, prison, and death.
The accompaniment for the song and dance was the rhythm ofhandclapping,
fingersnapping, which the gypsy preferred to castanets, and the rapping
of knuckles on table tops. Gypsy music was deeply emotional.  In
contrast, the motivation for the Andalucian folk music was festive joy
and communal celebration.

Apparently, the gypsies did not keep completely to them- selves, for
Cervantes (1547-1616), in his NovelasEjemplares, wrote of gypsies
perforing seguidillas, jacaras, romances, and zarabandas. It would,
therefore, appear that gypsies were incorporating some of the Andalucian
dances and per- forming them for non-gypsies.

Two other influences affected Andalucian music as it pre- pared to enter
the eighteenth century: Beginning in the lSOO's, Spain began extensive
exploration of Africa; Sevilla became one of the largest slave markets
on the Iberian Pen- insula. There are still black families living in
Andalucfa that date back to those times, and Black African music may
have had some effect on Andalucian music. More certain is the role
played by the discovery of the Americas. The phe- nomenon was two-fold.
Most ships sailed from the ports on Spain's southern coast, from towns
like Huelva, Sanlucar, Cadiz, and Malaga. Sailors came to these ports
from all over Spain, bringing with them the music of their home regions.
Andalucian music, ever flexible and open to out- side influence,
incorporated and transformed this music into new forms. The jotas of
Arag6n became the jotas de Cadiz (much later, the alegrfas), while a
dance from Galicia would eventually become the farruca. The other side
of the pic- ture became more evident in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, when Spaniards returning to these same ports, brought with
them music from Latin America, which then became part of the Andalucian
tradition. This is another source of African influence, since Black
culture played a large role in the formation of certain types of Latin
music.

By 1700, the guitar had acquired a sixth string and was played in two
different styles. As a plucked instrument, it had been highly developet
for playing what we now call "classical" music, the music of the
nobility. The popular instrument of the people was played using
rasgueados (strumming with the fingers). While these instruments were an
integral part of Andalucian folk music, it is generally held that they
did not play much of a part in the early development of gypsy music.

Also by 1700, both Andalucian and gypsy music had - acquired
recognizable forms, and references to them began to appear more
frequently in the literature of Spain and other countries. Although
gypsy music was still very private, a ritual of the gypsy families,
gypsies had become a popular theme for theatre works and wete witely
mentionet. The -oldest written example of flamenco is a siguiriya found
in an eighteenth century Italian opera,"La Maschera Fortunata by Neri.
In 1779, Henry Swinburne wrote in Spain in the Years 1775 and 1776 that
the gypsies of Catiz danced an in- decent dance called the manguidoy to
the rhythm of hand- clapping; he al80 mentioned guitars, castanets, ant
rough- voicet singing of polo. Other references speak of the taconeo
(heelwork) ant the seguitillas gitanas. (The seguidillas were live}y
songs, relatet to the sevillanas, not the profount gypsy cante of totay
that has a similar name.) By 1800, references indicate 24 dances that
were supposedly performed by gypsies; most of those no longer exit, and
none of them are specifically part of the gypsy dance we know today,
although some survived in the non- gypsy flamenco, particularly the
fandangos and the segui- dillas (sevillanas).

At the turn of the century, gypsy song was well developed and certain
cantaores (flamenco singers) had established reputations for their
interpretations of the cante. George Borrow, an English adventurer and
author, wrote about his experience with the gypsies in the early 1800's.
He men- tions singing and dancing "a lo gitano" (in the gypsy manner)
and was the first to write that the gypsies were called flamencos and
had been for some time. The music it- self, however, was not yet called
flamenco. The word "flamenco" has long mystified historians who have
demon- strated vivid imaginations in attempting to explain why a word
that means "Flemish" or "flamingo" (the bird) should be used to describe
an Andalucian music form. Some attribute the word to Arab roots, others
to fact that Carlos I brought with him from Flanders (Flanders included
much of what is now Belgium, the Netherlands or Holland, ant Luxemburg)
an entire Flemish court; in atdition, Spain occupied Flanders until
1648. Other origins have been suggested: that because singers in the
court were Flemish, the word came to be asso- ciated with singing; that
Spaniards, especially Andalucians, like to name things by their
opposites, and since the Flemish were tall and blond and the gypsies
short and dark, the gypsies were called "Flemish"; that all foreigners
were called flamencos ant the gypsies, who were still coming in- to
Spain, were includet; that because Flemish noblemen, bored with court
life, used to party with the gypsies, the name eventually transferred;
and that soldiers returning from Flanders associated with gypsies in the
taverns and all were called flamencos.

The problem with all of these suggestions, is that the events which lent
them validity took place several hundred years before there is any
record of gypsies being called flamencos. It is possible that the term
remained localized in some remote area for hundreds of years and later
became widespread. Until better evidence emerges, you can take your pick
of explanations or make up your own.

language, wrote Escenas Andaluzas in 1847. This detailed description of
twenty-two typical Andalucian scenes in- cludes one calledlUn baile de
Triana(A Dance in Triana), in which Calder6n described what we would
call today a fiesta flamenca: In a patio in Triana (Sevilla) were
gathered a number of artists, among them some legendary figures in the
history of flamenco - the singers El Planeta and El Fillo (whose raspy
voice became the prototype for gypsy flamenco singing and gave us the
term afilla to describe that vocal quality) and the dancers La Perla and
El Jerezano. Calder6n writes of the guitar, at first strumming softly
then more strongly, of the suspiro, the singer's warm-up using passages
of "Ay, ay...," and of a number of cantes. (The Spanish word for song in
general is canto or canci6n- cante refers specifically to flamenco
song.) The cantes included cana, polo, polo tobslo, sevillanas,
serranas, jaberas, rondenas, ant corritas (also called romances ant
derivet from the ancient ballats of northern Spain, motifiet by Arabic
meloties, and guardet and spread through the south by the gypsies; this
tradition survives only in remote areas of Andalucfa, although it has
been resurrectet somewhat recently). Also mentionet were tonadas (little
songs), a name that would later be applied in the shortened form, ton5s,
to a group of profound gypsy cantes that are still sung without musical
accompaniment. Names of flamenco song forms often have odd and confusing
derivations. The gypsy siguiriyas are named from the Andalucian
pronunciation of seguidillas, a totally unrelated song form. The solea,
an important cante in flamenco, was named after a woman called Soledad
who sang very well and with great profundity, some songs originally
called jaleos; her version was called soledades, soleaes, soleares, and
most often today, solea.

Concerning the dancing, Calderon wrote of the importance o the compas
(rhythm, including meter, accentuation, and rythmic cycles), arm
movements, footwork, rapid twisting and turning of the body, and the sal
(spice) and gracia (humor, wit) of the performers. He names the
following dances, most of which are considered to be Andalucian rather
than gypsy; caa, tiranas, jaberas, malaguenas, bolero, zorongo, ole ole,
la tana, granadina, la yerbabuena, las seguidillas, caleseras, and
zapateado. Of special interest musically is the fact that most of the
songs and dances were accompanied by an orchestra of guitars, bandolins
(most likely ban- durrias, a mandolin type of instrument with double
strings), and violins; this type of accompaniment is not typical of
gypsy flamenco, but survives in Andalucian folk music, espe- cially in
groups called pandas de verdiale8 that perform the songs of the Malaga
area.

Other travelers in the early 1800's tell us that gypsy dancers did not
use their feet, moving only the hips, upper torso, and arms. We also
know from these sources and from song verses dating from the period that
the jaleo (verbal encouragement of the performers) as we know it today
was al- ready in widespread use, including "ole," "anda chiquillo," and
"que toma, que toma" (Spanish equivalents of "go man go!").

The music that was accesible to the traveler in this period was almost
certainly dominated by the Andalucian ele- ment rather than the gypsy.
Gypsies may have performed for the public under certain circumstances,
but reports do not seem to indicate that they were performing what would
appear a few decades later as the highly developed cante gitano (forms
like the tonas, siguiriyas, and soleares). It is im- portant to keep in
mind the differences between these two forms of music, for these
subdivisions of flamenco still exist today. The gypsy cante was private,
emotional and very personal; it used primarily the phrygian mode and
complex rhythm patterns, and was very difficult to sing; the
accompaniment was most often the rhythm of handclapping, fingersnapping,
knuckle-rapping, or the tapping of a cane - even today some forms are
always sung a palo seco (a capella); even when the guitar began to play
a more impor- tant role in flamenco, distinct gypsy and non-gypsy styles
of playing emerged. Andalucian folk music, on the other hand, was very
public music, sung in the major and minor modes and using 214, 314, or
6|8 meter; it was often accom- panied by groups of instruments.

In 1842, events occurred that would change the nature of flamenco and
gave birth to what we now refer to as the "Golden Age of Flamenco."
Certain Andalucian taverns where flamenco was cultivated began to place
more emphasis on the performance of the cante and baile (dance). The
performers were usually not professionals, but performed out of afici6n,
love of their art. On the rare occasion that a guitar was available, it
might have been strummed in an improvisational manner, but the guitar
had not yet emerged as an integral part of flamenco. However, there must
have ben some guitarists starting to develop the flamenco style, for it
would be in widespread use within a few decade.  Moreover, the Russian
composer Glinka was entranced by the playing of the gypsy guitarist El
Murciano in Granada, and he wrote down some of the guitarist's
compoitions. In neighborhood patios, country inns, and tiny tJverns,
flamenco made it8 first public appearance and began its emergence from
the private, almost religious position it h-d held in the gypsy f
milies.

The earliest known caf de cante, as the first flamenco
nightclub were called opened in Sevilla in 1842. For the
firt time flamenco arti8ts were paid on a regular ba

Several more clubs opened, but then all were clo8ed down, and it wa-
another twenty years before the great cantsor, Silverio Franconetti,
returnet from South Americ- ant opened the firt cafe cant-nte in Sevilla
and offici-lly beg-n the "Golten Age." The interest in cante ant baile
flamenco must have been builting, becaue after Silverio openet his cafe
in 1860, the public repone rerulted in a virtual explosion of similar
cafes throughout Andalucfa - sometime seven or eight in one city - and
even in other part8 of Spain (espe- cially in Madrid and Barcelona).
Often they were elegant salons with ornate decor, box seats, and a
raised stage.  The artists were hired to form a cuadro, a performing
group of several singers, one or two guitarists, and six or seven
dancers, mostly women. There were usually sor star per- formers, mot
often singers, who were hired as the main attractions. The opportunity
offered by the cafes en- couraged many new artit to become professional.
These artists tended to specialize in a few cante and, in doing
so, created new variations ant peron-l style. (Each cante is defined by
its rhythmic pattern, progression of tones, emotional mood, ant content
of the verse. Within those limits, each cantaor can create his own
style; that style is not a "song" in the sense that we think of the
term, because the singer will vary the meloty ant the words each time he
sings and even sing a number of different styles within a ingle
performance of a particular cante.)

The period of the "Golden Age," which la ted until about 1910, gave U8
most of totay's flamenco form (cantes) some of which were found in
greater variety than we know today.  In spite of the popularity of
flamenco, certain of the gypsy cantes - the alboreas (wedding songs) and
the romance, for example - did not leave the privacy of the gypsy
circles until well into the 1950'8. From the America came new music
forms that spread from Spain's port towns to the ret of Andalucfa ant
were aggimilatet into flamenco. These cantes, callet cantes de ida y
vuelta (round trip ongs) be- cause they were taken to the New Worlt,
trsnsformet, ant then returnet to Spain, woult eventually inclute the
milonga from Argentina, the colombiana8 from Columbia, ant the guajira
ant rumba from Cuba. The flamenco repertoire wa also increased by the
mixing of the gypsy and Antalucian cante: The fantango evolved into new
and more profound forms such as the tarantas and the malagueaas, which
gra- dually lost their rhythmic musical accompaniment and were
transferred from dance songs into serious cantes for lis- tening. The
alegrfas, originally the jotas de Cadiz, appeared in new forms called
romeras, mirabras, and cara- coles.

Another effect of the cafe cantante period was the break- ing down of
regional barriers. Before themeach province had developed its own styles
of cante: In the gypsy neigh- borhood of Triana (Sevilla), emerged
styles of tonas, caaas, ant soleares- in the Barrio Santa Marfa (Catiz)
were developed the forms of alegrfas and tangos; from the Barric de
Santiago in Jerez, came the siguriyas, jaleos, bulerias, and tonas; from
Granada; Malaga, and Huelva came different forms of the fandangos. In
the cafes, these cantes came to- gether, and singers learned from each
other. Guitarists had to learn to accompany more than just the local
styles, thereby expanding their repertoires.

In the cafe cantante, the guitar became an important part of the
flamenco "show", and guitarists developed rapidly, learning from and
competing with each other. They competed not only with each other, but
also with the dancers and singers. To get attention, guitarists began to
insert more falsetas (melodies) into their playing, taking their themes
from the cante. Soon, each club had a soloist, some of whom resorted to
playing behind their backs, over their heads, or with gloves. An early
soloist, Paco Lucena (c. 1855- 1930), is credited with introducing
picado (rapid melodic passages played with the index nd middle fingers),
three- fingered arpeggios, and tremelo that he learned from a classical
guitarist. Another great guitarist, Javier Molina, was more of an
accompanist, but he helped to mold two of the founders of the modern
flamenco guitar, Ram6n Montoya and Nino Ricardo.

At some time during this period, the cejilla (seh- HEE-yah; capo) came
into widespread use and made life easier for the singer. Prior to that,
a singer had two basic keys he could sing in, although each could be
major, minor, or phrygian; these were por arriba (above; E) or por medio
(in the middle; A), with the occasional use of the por abajo position
(below; D). The names came from the relative posi- tions of these chords
as seen from the perspective of the cantaor. It has been suggested that
one of the reasons the raspy voice has come to be associated with
flamenco was the limited choice of tones that the cantaores had and the
resultant strain on the voice. (Due to the nature of the guitar and
flamenco, it is not desirable to play the differ- ent song forms in
different keys without the use of the cejilla. The reasons are many: The
accompaniments are often too spontaneous and complicated to be learned
in all keys; some keys are very difficult on the guitar; the
characteristic melodies of a particular form are often molded by the
chord structures of a particular key; the characteristic sound of each
cante, or its accompaniment, depends upon the chords used - unlike the
piano, the guitar does not sound the same in all keys. Modern players
have become much more flexible in this matter but still tend to return
to traditional tones for traditional flamenco forms.)

The dance in the cafe cantante was generally corto, that is, limited in
variety. The primary flamenco dances were, at first, the alegrias,
tanguillos de Cadiz, and soleares for the women, who emphasized the
upper body and arms, with verv little footwork. The men, who danced the
alegrias, farrucas, and soleares, perhaps placed more mphasis on the
feet, but real virtuosity in that area was not to come until the
twentieth century. The real explosion of new dance would also come in
the twentieth century, when cantes that were considered to undanceable
or too sacred to dance would be interpreted by great dancers and added
to the repertoire.

The cafe cantante period was the beginning of what we know today as
flamenco, and the growth of and change in the music were quite dramatic.
In the conclusion of this article, "The Mdern Era," we will see how the
many forces acting on flamenco brought it into a state of degeneration