Theodor
Wiesengrund Adorno
(b. Sept. 11, 1903, Frankfurt am Main, Ger.--d. Aug. 6, 1969, Visp, Switz.),
German philosopher who also wrote on sociology, psychology, and musicology.
Adorno obtained a degree in philosophy from Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt in 1924. His early writings, which emphasize aesthetic development as important to historical evolution, reflect the influence of Walter Benjamin's application of Marxism to cultural criticism. After teaching two years at the University of Frankfurt, Adorno immigrated to England in 1934 to escape the Nazi persecution of the Jews. He taught at the University of Oxford for three years and then went to the United States (1938), where he worked at Princeton (1938-41) and then was codirector of the Research Project on Social Discrimination at the University of California, Berkeley (1941-48). Adorno and his colleague Max Horkheimer returned to the University of Frankfurt in 1949. There they rebuilt the Institute for Social Research and revived the Frankfurt school of critical theory, which contributed to the German intellectual revival after World War II.
One of Adorno's themes was civilization's tendency to self-destruction, as evinced by Fascism. In their widely influential book Dialektik der Aufklärung (1947; Dialectic of Enlightenment), Adorno and Horkheimer located this impulse in the concept of reason itself, which the Enlightenment and modern scientific thought had transformed into an irrational force that had come to dominate not only nature but humanity itself. The rationalization of human society had ultimately led to Fascism and other totalitarian regimes that represented a complete negation of human freedom. Adorno concluded that rationalism offers little hope for human emancipation, which might come instead from art and the prospects it offers for preserving individual autonomy and happiness. Adorno's other major publications are Philosophie der neuen Musik (1949; Philosophy of Modern Music), The Authoritarian Personality (1950, with others), Negative Dialektik (1966; Negative Dialectics), and Ästhetische Theorie (1970; "Aesthetic Theory").
Herbert
Marcuse
(b. July 19, 1898, Berlin--d. July 29, 1979, Starnberg, W.Ger.), German-born
U.S. political philosopher whose Marxist critical philosophy and Freudian psychological
analyses of 20th-century Western society were popular among student leftist
radicals, especially after the 1968 student rebellions in West Berlin, New York's
Columbia University, and the Sorbonne in Paris.
Having become a member of the Social Democratic Party while a student at the University of Freiburg (Ph.D., 1922), Marcuse later conducted philosophical research there (1922-32) and was a co-founder of the Frankfurt Institut für Sozialforschung. He fled to Geneva in 1933 as Hitler rose to power, then went to the United States in 1934, where he taught at Columbia University and became a naturalized citizen in 1940. An intelligence analyst for the U.S. Army during World War II, he headed the Central European Section of the Office of Intelligence Research after the war. He returned to teaching in 1951 at Columbia and Harvard (to 1954), Brandeis University (1954-65), and the University of California at San Diego (1965-76), where after retirement he was honorary emeritus professor of philosophy until his death.
A Hegelian-Freudian-Marxist, Marcuse was wedded to the ideas of radicalization, vociferous dissent, and "resistance to the point of subversion." He believed that Western society was unfree and repressive, that its technology had bought the complacency of the masses with material goods, and that it had kept them intellectually and spiritually captive. However, although a frank exponent of resistance to the established order, Marcuse did not applaud the campus demonstrations. "I still consider the American University an oasis of free speech and real critical thinking in the society," he said. "Any student movement should try to protect this citadel . . . [but] try to radicalize the departments inside the university."
Among his major writings are Eros and Civilization (1955), One-Dimensional Man (1964), Counterrevolution and Revolt (1972), and Studies in Critical Philosophy (1972)
1. Mantık ve İhtilal - Kitaş Yayınları
2. Estetik Boyut - İdea Yayınları
Michel
Paul Foucault
(b. Oct. 15, 1926, Poitiers, Fr.--d. June 25, 1984, Paris), French structuralist
philosopher noted for his examination of the concepts and codes by which societies
operate, especially the "principles of exclusion" (such as the distinctions
between the sane and the insane) by which a society defines itself.
The son of a physician, Foucault studied under the Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser at the École Normale Supérieure, Paris. He taught at the University of Clermont-Ferrand between 1960 and 1968 and then spent two years at the University of Paris-Vincennes. From 1970 until his death he was professor of the history of systems of thought at the Collège de France.
Foucault's early studies concerned the history of mental illness and society's response to it. Society's use of the concept of madness in the 17th century is the subject of his Folie et Déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique (1961; Madness and Civilization). In his book Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la prison (1975; Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison) he examined the origins of the modern penal system. In these and other books, Foucault put forth the thesis that institutions such as asylums, hospitals, and prisons are society's devices for exclusion and that by surveying social attitudes in relation to these institutions, one can examine the development and uses of power.
Among Foucault's other works are Les Mots et les choses: Une Archéologie des sciences humaines (1966; The Order of Things: An Archaeologie of Human Sciences) and L'Archéologie du savoir (1969; The Archaeology of Knowledge). His Histoire de la sexualité, 3 vol. (1976-84; History of Sexuality), which examined the history of Western attitudes toward sexuality since the ancient Greeks, confirmed his reputation as one of the leading French intellectuals of his day.
Deliliğin Tarihi (İmge Kitabevi)
Jean-Paul
Sartre
(b. June 21, 1905, Paris--d. April 15, 1980, Paris), French novelist, playwright,
and exponent of Existentialism--a philosophy acclaiming the freedom of the individual
human being. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1964, but he declined
it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Francis Jeanson, Le Problème moral et la pensée de Sartre (1947),
and Sartre par lui-même (1955); Iris Murdoch, Sartre: Romantic Rationalist (1953);
Wilfrid Desan, The Tragic Finale; An Essay on the Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre
(1960), and The Marxism of Jean-Paul Sartre (1965); Maurice N. Cranston, Sartre
(1965); Norman N. Greene, Jean-Paul Sartre: The Existentialist Ethic (1960);
Ronald O. Laing and David G. Cooper, Reason and Violence: A Decade of Sartre's
Philosophy, 1950-1960 (1964); Philip Thody, Jean-Paul Sartre: A Literary and
Political Study (1960); Mary Warnock, The Philosophy of Sartre (1967); Robert
Denoon Cumming, The Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre (1965); Colette Audry, Sartre
et la réalité humaine (1966); Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka, Les Écrits de
Sartre (1970); Joseph H. McMahon, Humans Being: The World of Jean-Paul Sartre
(1971); Allen J. Belkind (comp.), Jean-Paul Sartre, Sartre and Existentialism
in English: A Bibliographical Guide (1970); Dominick La Capra, A Preface to
Sartre (1978); Thomas Anderson, The Foundation and Structure of Sartrean Ethics
(1979); Joseph Fell, Heidegger and Sartre (1979); Hugh Silverman and Frederick
Elliston (eds.), Jean-Paul Sartre: Contemporary Approaches to his Philosophy
(1980).
Friedrich
Nietzsche
a 19th-century German philosopher and writer, was one of the most influential
modern thinkers. His attempts to unmask the root motives that underlie traditional
Western religion, morality, and philosophy deeply affected generations of theologians,
philosophers, psychologists, poets, novelists, and playwrights. He thought through
the consequences of the triumph of the Enlightenment's secularism, expressed
in his observation that "God is dead," in a way that determined the agenda for
many of Europe's most celebrated intellectuals after his death in 1900. Although
he was an ardent foe of nationalism, anti-Semitism, and power politics, his
name was later invoked by Fascists to advance the very things he loathed.
Böyle Buyurdu Zerdüşt - Bilgi Yay.
Arthur
Schopenhauer
(b. Feb. 22, 1788, Danzig, Prussia [now Gdansk, Pol.]--d. Sept. 21, 1860,
Frankfurt am Main), German philosopher, often called the "philosopher of pessimism,"
who was primarily important as the exponent of a metaphysical doctrine of the
will in immediate reaction against Hegelian idealism. His writings influenced
later existential philosophy and Freudian psychology.
Ludwig
Josef Johann Wittgenstein
(b. April 26, 1889, Vienna--d. April 29, 1951, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire,
Eng.), Austrian-born English philosopher, who was one of the most influential
figures in British philosophy during the second quarter of the 20th century
and who produced two original and influential systems of philosophical thought--his
logical theories and later his philosophy of language.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Biographical works and studies of his writings include Anthony
Kenny, Wittgenstein (1973, reissued 1976), an overview of his thought and works;
K.T. Fann, Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Man and His Philosophy (1967, reissued 1978),
an anthology of memoirs and essays; Norman Malcolm, Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir,
2nd ed. (1984), recollections of Wittgenstein from 1938 to 1951, with a biographical
sketch by G.H. von Wright; Brian McGuinness, Wittgenstein: A Life: Young Ludwig,
1889-1921 (1988), based on all known existing documents; Peter Winch (ed.),
Studies in the Philosophy of Wittgenstein (1969), a collection of essays on
both the earlier and later philosophy; Gerd Brand, The Essential Wittgenstein
(1979), an attempt to demonstrate the unity in Wittgenstein's thought; Irving
Block (ed.), Perspectives on the Philosophy of Wittgenstein (1981, reprinted
1983); Derek Bolton, An Approach to Wittgenstein's Philosophy (1979); Max Black,
A Companion to Wittgenstein's "Tractatus" (1964), an informative commentary;
Irving M. Copi and Robert W. Beard (eds.), Essays on Wittgenstein's "Tractatus"
(1966); H.O. Mounce, Wittgenstein's "Tractatus" (1981); J.F.M. Hunter, Understanding
Wittgenstein: Studies of "Philosophical Investigations" (1985); Anthony Kenny,
The Legacy of Wittgenstein (1984, reprinted 1987); and Stuart Shanker (ed.),
Ludwig Wittgenstein: Critical Assessments, 4 vol. (1986). Further research information
may be found in François H. Lapointe, Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Comprehensive Bibliography
(1980).
Alber
Camus
(b. Nov. 7, 1913, Mondovi, Alg.--d. Jan. 4, 1960, near Sens, France), French
novelist, essayist, and playwright, best known for such novels as L'Étranger
(1942; The Stranger), La Peste (1947; The Plague), and La Chute (1956; The Fall)
and for his work in leftist causes. He received the 1957 Nobel Prize for Literature.
1. L'homme révolté (Editions Gallimard)
Franz
Kafka
(b. July 3, 1883, Prague, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary [now in Czech Republic]--d.
June 3, 1924, Kierling, near Vienna, Austria), Czech-born German-language writer
of visionary fiction, whose posthumously published novels--especially Der Prozess
(1925; The Trial) and Das Schloss (1926; The Castle)--express the anxieties
and alienation of 20th-century man.
Martin
Hidegger
(b. Sept. 26, 1889, Messkirch, Schwarzwald, Ger.--d. May 26, 1976, Messkirch,
W.Ger.), German philosopher, counted among the main exponents of 20th-century
Existentialism. He was an original thinker, a critic of technological society,
a leading ontologist of his time, and an influence on a younger generation of
continental European cultural personalities.
1. Metafizik Nedir? - Türkiye Felsefe Kurumu
ARTHUR
CHARLES CLARKE
(b. Dec. 16, 1917, Minehead, Somerset, Eng.), English writer, some of whose
science-fiction concepts have had remarkable parallels, particularly in the
development of satellite communications.
Interested in science from childhood, Clarke as a youth mapped the Moon with the aid of a telescope of his own construction. Lacking sufficient money for higher education, he worked as a government auditor from 1936 to 1941. He also joined a small, advanced group that called itself the British Interplanetary Society. From 1941 to 1946 Clarke served in the Royal Air Force, becoming a radar instructor and technician. While in the service he published his first science-fiction stories and in 1945 wrote for Wireless World an article entitled "Extra-Terrestrial Relays," predicting in detail a communications satellite system that would relay radio and television signals all over the world. The reaction of even specialized readers was skeptical. Twenty years later, however, the Early Bird synchronous satellites were actually launched.
After the war, Clarke secured a degree from King's College, London (B.Sc., 1948), with honours in physics and mathematics, and then became a prolific science-fiction writer, known especially for such novels as Earthlight (1955), A Fall of Moondust (1961), and The Fountains of Paradise (1979). Collections of essays and lectures include Voices from the Sky (1965), The View from Serendip (1977), and Ascent to Orbit: A Scientific Autobiography (1984).
In the 1950s Clarke developed an interest in undersea exploration and moved to Colombo, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), where he embarked on a second career combining skin diving and photography; he reported his various underwater ventures in a succession of books, the first of which was The Coast of Coral (1956).
In the 1960s Clarke collaborated with motion-picture director Stanley Kubrick in making the innovative and highly praised science-fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), based on Clarke's short story "The Sentinel" (1951) and subsequently developed into a novel (1968). A sequel novel, 2010: Odyssey Two (1982), was released as a film in 1984. Later novels in the series include 2061: Odyssey Three (1987) and 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997).
Auguste
Comte
in full ISIDORE-AUGUSTE-MARIE-FRANÇOIS-XAVIER COMTE (b. Jan. 19, 1798, Montpellier,
France--d. Sept. 5, 1857, Paris), French philosopher known as the founder of
sociology and of positivism. Comte gave the science of sociology its name and
established the new subject in a systematic fashion.
Le Catechisme Positiviste (MEB)
Edith
Hamilton
Mitologya (Çev: Ülkü Tamer - Varlık Yayınları)
Immanuel
Kant
Immanuel Kant was the foremost thinker of the Enlightenment and one of the great
philosophers of all time, in whom were subsumed new trends that had begun with
the Rationalism (stressing reason) of René Descartes and the Empiricism (stressing
experience) of Francis Bacon. He inaugurated a new era in the development of
philosophical thought. His comprehensive and systematic work in theory of knowledge,
ethics, and aesthetics greatly influenced all subsequent philosophy, especially
the various German schools of Kantianism and Idealism.
Philosophia Practica Universalis (Etik Üzerine Dersler 1 - Kabalcı Yayınevi)
Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
G.W.F. Hegel was the last of the great philosophical-system builders of modern
times. His work, following upon that of Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte,
and Friedrich Schelling, thus marks the pinnacle of classical German philosophy.
As an absolute Idealist inspired by Christian insights and grounded in his mastery
of a fantastic fund of concrete knowledge, Hegel found a place for everything--logical,
natural, human, and divine--in a dialectical scheme that repeatedly swung from
thesis to antithesis and back again to a higher and richer synthesis. His influence
has been as fertile in the reactions that he precipitated--in Søren Kierkegaard,
the Danish Existentialist; in the Marxists, who turned to social action; in
the Vienna Positivists; and in G.E. Moore, a pioneering figure in British Analytic
philosophy--as in his positive impact.
1. Hukuk Felsefesinin Prensipleri
- Sosyal Yayınları
2. Tinin Fenomenolojisis - Remzi Yay.
3. Mantık Filimi - Remzi Yay.
4. Tarih Felsefesi Üzerine Dersler - Remzi Yay.
5. Estetik Üzerine Dersler - Remzi Yay.
6. Felsefe Tarihi Üzerien Dersler - Remzi Yay.
7. Tarihte Akıl - Ara Yay.
Friedrich
Wilhelm Joseph Von Schelling
(b. Jan. 27, 1775, Leonberg, near Stuttgart, Württemberg [Germany]--d. Aug.
20, 1854, Bad Ragaz, Switz.), German philosopher and educator, a major figure
of German idealism, in the post-Kantian development in German philosophy. He
was ennobled (with the addition of von) in 1806.
Johann
Gottlieb Fichte
(b. May 19, 1762, Rammenau, Upper Lusatia, Saxony [now in Germany]--d. Jan.
27, 1814, Berlin), German philosopher and patriot, one of the great transcendental
idealists. (see also Index: Kantianism, transcendental idealism)
Friedrich
Schiller
(b. Nov. 10, 1759, Marbach, Württemberg--d. May 9, 1805, Weimar, Saxe-Weimar),
leading German dramatist, poet, and literary theorist, best remembered for such
dramas as Die Räuber (1781; The Robbers), the Wallenstein trilogy (1800-01),
Maria Stuart (1801), and Wilhelm Tell (1804). He was ennobled (with the addition
of the von) in 1802.
Georges
Cogniot
İlkÇağ Materyalizmi (Anadolu Yayınları)
Donald
A. Mackenzie
Çin ve Japon Mitolojisi (İmge Kitabevi)
Maurice
Duverger
Siyasi Partiler - Bilgi Yay.
Marquis
de Sade
byname of DONATIEN-ALPHONSE-FRANÇOIS, COMTE DE SADE (b. June 2, 1740, Paris,
France--d. Dec. 2, 1814, Charenton, near Paris), French nobleman whose perverse
sexual preferences and erotic writings gave rise to the term sadism. His best-known
work is the novel Justine (1791).
1. Les infortunes de la vertu - Bookking International Paris
Plato
Plato was the second of the great trio of ancient Greeks-- Socrates, Plato,
and Aristotle--who between them laid the philosophical foundations of Western
culture. Building on the life and thought of Socrates, Plato developed a profound
and wide-ranging system of philosophy. His thought has logical, epistemological,
and metaphysical aspects; but its underlying motivation is ethical. It sometimes
relies upon conjectures and myth, and it is occasionally mystical in tone; but
fundamentally Plato is a rationalist, devoted to the proposition that reason
must be followed wherever it leads. Thus the core of Plato's philosophy is a
rationalistic ethics.
1. Devlet - MEB
Ursula
K. LeGuin
Mülksüzler
Amin
Maalouf
Tanios Kayası - Yapı Kredi Yay.
Andre
Malreau
Kantonda İsyan
NAZIM
HIKMET RAN
(b. 1902, Salonika, Ottoman Empire [now Thessaloníki, Greece]--d. June 2, 1963,
Moscow), poet who was one of the most important and influential figures in 20th-century
Turkish literature. The son of an Ottoman government official, Nazim Hikmet
grew up in Anatolia; after briefly attending the Turkish naval academy, he studied
economics and political science at the University of Moscow. Returning home
as a Marxist in 1924 after the advent of the new Turkish Republic, he began
to work for a number of journals and started Communist propaganda activities.
In 1951 he left Turkey forever after serving a lengthy jail sentence for his
radical and subversive activities. From then on he lived in the Soviet Union
and eastern Europe, where he continued to work for the ideals of world Communism.
His mastery of language and introduction of free verse and a wide range of poetic
themes strongly influenced Turkish literature in the late 1930s. After early
recognition with his patriotic poems in syllabic metre, in Moscow he came under
the influence of the Russian Futurists, and by abandoning traditional poetic
forms, indulging in exaggerated imagery, and using unexpected associations,
he attempted to "depoetize" poetry. Later his style became quieter, and he published
Seyh Bedreddin destani (1936; "The Epic of Shaykh Bedreddin"), about a 15th-century
revolutionary religious leader in Anatolia; and Memleketimden insan manzaralari
("Portraits of People from My Land"), a 20,000-line epic. Although previously
censored, after his death in 1963 all his works were published and widely read,
and he became a poet of the people and a revolutionary hero of the Turkish left.
Many of his works have been translated into English, including Selected Poems
(1967), The Moscow Symphony (1970), The Day Before Tomorrow (1972), and Things
I Didn't Know I Loved (1975). Nazim Hikmet is also known for his plays, which
are written in vigorous prose and are also mainly Marxist inspired.
Orhan
Veli
Bütün Şiirler
Mehmet
Emin Bozarlan
Hilafet ve Ümmetçilik Sorunu (Ant Yayınları)
Korkut
Boratav
İstanbul ve Anadoludan Sınıf Profilleri (Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları)
Çağlar
Keyder
Dünya Ekonomisi içinde Türkiye (1923- 1929) - (Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları)
Bedia
Akarsu
Çağdaş Felsefe (Inkılap Kitabevi)
Macit
Gökberk
Felsefe Tarihi - Bilgi Yay.
Stefanos
Yerasimos
Türkiye Tarihi Üzerine
İlhan
Arsel
Şeriat ve Kadın
F.
Hüsrev Tökin
Türk Tarihinde Siyasi Partiler
Ergun
Aybars
İstiklal Mahkemeleri - Bilgi Yay.
Taha
Parla
Kemalist Tek-Parti İdeolojisi ve CHP'nin Altı Oku
Arslan
Başer Kafaoğlu
Kit gerçeği ve Özelleştirme
Erdoğan
Aydın
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